语言学概论PDF电子书下载

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Chapter 1 Linguistics 1

1．What is linguistics? 1

2．What is a linguist? 3

3．How does linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 3

4．The scope of linguistics 7

5．Synchronic study and diachronic study 10

Chapter 2 Language 14

1．What is language? 14

2．Some definitions of"language" 15

3．The definition of language 17

3.1 Language as system 18

3.2 Language as arbitrary 18

3.3 Language as vocal 19

3.4 Language as symbol 19

3.5 Language as human 20

3.6 Language as communication 20

4．The design features of human language 21

4.1 Displacement 23

4.2 Arbitrariness 24

4.3 Productivity(Creativity) 26

4.4 Duality 27

4.5 Cultural transmission 28

4.6 Interchangeability 30

4.7 Discreteness 30

4.8 Specialization 31

5．The origin of language 31

5.1 The divine source 32

5.2 The natural sounds source 34

5.3 The oral-gesture source 35

5.4 "Functional"theories 36

Chapter 3 Phonetics 38

1．What is phonetics? 38

2．Three branches of phonetics 39

2.1 Articulatory phonetics 39

2.2 Acoustic phonetics 39

2.3 Perceptual(Auditory)phonetics 39

3．The speech organs 40

4．Voiced and voiceless sounds 41

5．Vowels and consonants 42

6．Consonants 43

6.1 Place of articulation 43

6.2 Manner of articulation 45

6.3 The classification of consonants 47

7．Vowels 49

7.1 Classification of pure vowels(monophthongs) 49

7.2 Diphthongs 51

8．The phonemes 52

9．Allophone 54

10．Phonetic transcription 55

10.1 The need for phonetic transcription 55

10.2 The International Phonetic Alphabet 56

10.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions 56

Chapter 4 Phonology 62

1．What is phonology? 62

2．Minimal pairs and free variation 63

3．Phonemic contrast and complementary distribution 64

4．Phonetic similarity 65

5．Level of representation 66

6．Phonological rules 68

6.1 Aspiration 69

6.2 Vowel lengthening 70

6.3 Flapping 71

6.4 Neutralization 72

6.5 Vowel nasalization 73

6.6 Assimilation rule 74

6.7 Deletion rule 75

6.8 Sequential rules 77

7．Suprasegmental features 78

7.1 Segmental features 78

7.2 The syllable 79

7.3 Stress 81

7.3.1 Word stress 82

7.3.2 Sentence stress 84

7.4 Rhythm 85

7.5 Pitch 86

7.6 Intonation 87

7.6.1 What is intonation? 87

7.6.2 The structure of intonation 88

7.6.3 The functions of intonation 89

Chapter 5 Morphology 96

1．What is morphology? 96

2．What is a"word"? 97

3．Open versus closed class words 101

4．Word classes 103

5．Word-formation processes 111

5.1 Coinage 111

5.2 Borrowing 111

5.3 Compounding 112

5.4 Conversion 115

5.5 Derivation 116

5.6 Blending 116

5.7 Clipping 117

5.8 Acronyms 118

5.9 Backformation 119

6．Morphemes 120

6.1 What is a morpheme? 120

6.2 Morphemes and phonemes 122

6.3 Morphemes and syllables 122

6.4 Morphemes and semantic features 123

6.5 Types of morphemes 124

6.5.1 Free morphemes 125

6.5.2 Bound morphemes 125

6.5.3 Inflectional and derivational morphemes 127

6.5.3.1 Inflectional affixes 127

6.5.3.2 Derivational affixes 129

6.5.3.3 Differences between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes 130

6.6 Problems in morphological description 138

7．Allomorph 139

7.1 Phonological conditioning 140

7.2 Lexical conditioning 142

Chapter 6 Syntax 150

1．What is syntax? 150

1.1 The phrase 151

1.2 The clause 153

1.3 The sentence 157

1.3.1 The definition of a sentence 157

1.3.2 Types of sentences 159

1.3.3 Above the sentence 163

2．The traditional approach to syntax 165

2.1 The Reed-Kellogg diagram 165

2.2 The prescriptive approach 166

2.3 The descriptive approach 168

3．The structuralist approach 169

3.1 Sentence pattern 169

3.2 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations 170

3.3 Immediate constituent analysis 172

3.3.1 Immediate constituent 172

3.3.2 Different types of diagrams of IC analysis 173

3.3.3 Ultimate constituent 177

3.3.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions 178

3.3.5 Advantages and disadvantages of IC analysis 179

3.3.6 Discontinuous constituents 186

3.4 Structural ambiguity 188

4．The transformational-generative approach 191

4.1 Performance and competence 191

4.2 Generative grammar 194

4.2.1 What is generative grammar? 194

4.2.2 Some properties of generative grammar 195

4.2.3 Deep structure and surface structure 198

4.3 Transformational grammar 200

4.3.1 The standard theory 200

4.3.2 Phrase structure rules 202

4.3.3 Embedding and center embedding 209

4.3.4 Case grammar 212

4.3.4.1 What is case grammar? 212

4.3.4.2 Types of cases 215

4.3.4.3 Advantages of case grammar 218

Chapter 7 Semantics 226

1．What is semantics? 226

2．What is meaning? 228

2.1 Meaning as naming 229

2.2 Meaning as concept 230

2.3 Meaning as behaviour 233

2.4 Meaning as context 234

2.5 Meaning as use 235

3．Types of meaning 236

3.1 The traditional approach 236

3.2 The functional approach 236

3.3 The pragmatic approach 237

4．Word meaning 238

4.1 Sense and reference 238

4.2 Meaning properties 240

4.3 Meaning relations 241

4.3.1 Synonymy 242

4.3.2 Antonymy 243

4.3.3 Hyponymy 245

4.3.4 Homonymy and polysemy 247

4.3.5 Overlap 248

4.4 Componential analysis 249

5．Sentence meaning 252

5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence? 252

5.2 Meaning properties 253

5.3 Meaning relations 255

5.3.1 Entailment 255

5.3.2 Presupposition 256

5.3.3 Inconsistency 258

Chapter 8 Pragmatics 266

1．What is pragmatics? 266

2．The message model of linguistic communication 268

2.1 What is message model? 268

2.2 Problems with the message model 269

3．Context and meaning 273

4．Deixis 274

4.1 What is deixis? 274

4.2 Classification of deixis 274

4.2.1 Person deixis 275

4.2.2 Place deixis 275

4.2.3 Time deixis 275

5．Linguistic meaning and speaker meaning 275

6．Speech act theory 277

6.1 What is speech act theory? 277

6.2 Illocutionary acts 279

6.3 Classification of illocutionary acts 280

6.4 Felicity conditions 282

6.5 Explicit vs.nonexplicit illocutionary acts 283

6.6 Expressed vs.implied locutionary acts 285

6.7 Literal vs.nonliteral locutionary acts 287

6.8 Indirect speech acts 287

6.9 Difficulties in speech act theory 290

7．Conversational analysis 291

7.1 Openings 291

7.2 Taking it in turns 293

7.3 Repairs 294

7.4 Closings 295

8．Implicature 296

9．The cooperative principle 297

9.1 What is the cooperative principle? 297

9.2 The four conversational maxims 298

9.3 Violations of the maxims 299

10．The politeness principle 304

10.1 What is the politeness principle? 304

10.2 The six maxims of politeness principle 306

Chapter 9 Language Change 322

1．The changing language 322

2．The history of English 322

2.1 Old English 323

2.2 Middle English 324

2.3 Modern English 325

3．Language change 327

3.1 Phonological change 327

3.2 The causes of phonological change 328

3.2.1 Loss 328

3.2.2 Addition 329

3.2.3 Metathesis 331

3.2.4 Assimilation 332

3.2.5 Dissimilation 332

3.3 Morphological change 333

3.4 Syntactical change 335

3.5 Lexical change 337

3.5.1 Addition of new words 337

3.5.2 Loss of words 339

3.5.3 Semantic change 339

3.5.3.1 Narrowing 340

3.5.3.2 Broadening 341

3.5.3.3 Degradation 341

3.5.3.4 Elevation 342

3.5.3.5 Folk etymology 342

4．The process of change 343

Chapter 10 Sociolinguistics 347

1．What is sociolinguistics? 347

2．Varieties of language 348

2.1 Dialect 349

2.1.1 Accent and dialect 351

2.1.2 Regional dialect 352

2.1.2.1 Regional lexical dialect 354

2.1.2.2 Regional phonological dialect 356

2.1.3 Social dialect 358

2.1.3.1 Education 359

2.1.3.2 Occupation 360

2.1.3.3 Sex 360

2.1.3.4 Age 362

2.1.3.5 Race 363

2.1.3.6 Social class 365

2.1.4 Standard dialect 366

2.2 Style and register 367

2.2.1 Stylistic lexical variation 368

2.2.2 Stylistic phonological variation 369

2.2.3 Stylistic morphological variation 369

2.2.4 Stylistic syntactic variation 370

2.3 Other language varieties 371

2.3.1 Lingua francas 371

2.3.2 Pidgins 371

2.3.3 Creoles 372

2.3.4 Slang 373

2.3.5 Taboo language 374

2.3.6 Code switching 375

3．Bilingualism 378

4．Diglossia 379

5．Language planning 381

Chapter 11 Psycholinguistics 386

1．What is psycholinguistics? 386

2．First language acquisition 387

2.1 What is language acquisition? 387

2.2 Principles of language acquisition 388

2.3 Theories of language acquisition 393

2.4 Stages of language acquisition 398

2.4.1 The babbling stage 399

2.4.2 The one-word stage 400

2.4.3 The two-word stage 402

2.4.4 Telegraphic speech to full competence 403

3．Speech production 405

4．Speech perception 409

5．Language and thought 413

5.1 Language determines thought 413

5.2 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 414

5.3 Thought determines language 418

6．Language and the brain 419

6.1 The human brain 419

6.2 Cerebral dominance 420

6.3 The language centers 421

6.3.1 Broca's area 422

6.3.2 Wernicke's area 423

6.3.3 The angular gyrus 423

7．Aphasia 424

7.1 Broca's aphasia 424

7.2 Wernicke's aphasia 425

7.3 Conduction aphasia 426

7.4 Alexia and agraphia 427

Chapter 12 Applied linguistics 432

1．What is applied linguistics? 432

2．Second language learning 432

2.1 Second language and foreign language 432

2.2 Acquisition and learning 433

2.3 Motherese and teacher talk 434

2.4 Second language learning environment 436

2.5 Comparing L1 and L2 acquisition 437

2.6 Interference 438

2.7 Methods of analysis 439

2.7.1 Contrastive analysis 440

2.7.2 Error analysis 441

3．Teaching methodologies 443

3.1 Grammar translation method 443

3.2 Direct method 445

3.3 Audiolingual method 446

3.4 The communicative approach 448

3.5 The silent way 449

3.6 Suggestopedia 451

3.7 Total physical response 453

3.8 Community language learning 454

3.9 The natural approach 457

4．Testing 459

4.1 What is a test? 459

4.2 Types of tests 460

4.3 Principles of language testing 463

4.3.1 Practicality 464

4.3.2 Reliability 465

4.3.3 Validity 466

Bibliography 472

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