AKEHURST%MODERN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL LAW SEVENTH REVISED EDITIONPDF电子书下载

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1 Introduction 1

The problem of defining international law 1

General and regional international law 2

Characteristics of international law 3

International law as ‘law’ 5

The scope of international law 7

2 History and theory 9

The formation of European international law 10

Features of European international law in state practice after 1648 11

Colonization and the relation to non-European powers 12

The Western hemisphere 14

Theory： naturalists and positivists 15

The theory of sovereignty 17

Legal results of the period up to the First World War 18

The unlimited right to use force 19

The peaceful settlement of disputes 20

Prohibition of the slave trade 21

Humanization of the law of warfare 21

First forms of international organizations 22

The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907 22

The watershed after the First World War 23

The League of Nations 23

The attempt to restrict the use of force 24

Other functions of the League 24

The Permanent Court of Justice 24

Failure of the League system 25

Development after the Second World War 26

The prohibition of the use of force and collective security in the United Nations Charter 26

Decolonization and change in the composition of the international community 28

Attitudes of Third World states towards international law 28

Universality and the challenge to the unity of international law 30

New developments in theory 32

3 Sources of international law 35

Treaties 36

Law-making treaties and ‘contract treaties’ 37

Parties to international treaties and ‘internationalized contracts’ 38

Custom 39

Where to look for evidence of customary law 39

The problem of repetition 41

What states say and what states do 43

The psychological element in the formation of customary law （opinio iuris） 44

‘Instant’ customary law 45

Universality and the consensual theory of international law 46

General principles of law 48

Judicial decisions 51

Learned writers 51

Other possible sources of international law 52

Acts of international organizations 52

‘Soft’ law 54

Equity 55

The hierarchy of the sources 56

Ius cogens 57

Obligations erga omnes and ‘international crimes’ 58

Codification of international law 60

4 International law and municipal law 63

Dualist and monist theories 63

The attitude of international law to municipal law 64

The attitude of national legal systems to international law 65

Treaties 65

Custom and general principles 68

Conclusions 71

Public international law and private international law 71

5States and governments 75

States 75

Defined territory 75

Population 76

Effective control by a government 77

Capacity to enter into relations with other states 79

Self-determination and recognition as additional criteria 80

Federal states 81

Governments 81

Recognition of states and governments in international law 82

Recognition of states 82

Legal effects of recognition in international law 83

Legal effects in domestic law 86

Recognition of governments 86

De jure and de facto recognition 88

6International organizations， individuals， companies and groups 91

International organizations 92

Non-governmental organizations （NGOs） 96

Individuals and companies 100

Insurgents and national liberation movements 104

Ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples 105

Minorities 105

Indigenous peoples 106

7 Jurisdiction 109

Forms of jurisdiction 109

Criminal jurisdiction of national courts 110

Territorial principle 110

Nationality principle 111

Protective principle 111

Universality principle 112

Universal jurisdiction of national courts over crimes against human rights 113

‘Ivan the Terrible’ - The trial of John Demjanuk 115

Conflicts of jurisdiction 116

Extradition 117

8Immunity from jurisdiction 118

Sovereign （or state） immunity 118

The act of state doctrine 121

Diplomatic immunity 123

Immunity from the jurisdiction of courts 125

Other privileges and immunities 126

Consular immunity 127

Immunities of international organizations 127

Waiver of immunity 128

9 Treaties 130

Conclusion and entry into force of treaties 131

Adoption of the text of a treaty 131

Consent to be bound by a treaty 131

Entry into force 134

Reservations 135

Registration 136

Application of treaties 137

Territorial scope of treaties 137

Treaties and third states 137

Application of successive treaties relating to the same subject matter 137

Invalid treaties 137

Provisions of municipal law regarding competence to conclude treaties 138

Treaties entered into by persons not authorized to represent a state 138

Specific restrictions on authority to express the consent of a state 139

Coercion of a representative of a state 139

Coercion of a state by the threat or use of force 139

Other causes of invalidity 140

The consequences of invalidity 140

Termination of treaties 141

Termination in accordance with the provisions of a treaty 141

Termination by consent of the parties 141

Implied right of denunciation or withdrawal 142

Termination or suspension of a treaty as a consequence of its breach （discharge through breach） 142

Supervening impossibility of performance 144

Fundamental change of circumstances （rebus sic stantibus） 144

Emergence of a new peremptory norm （ius cogens） 145

Outbreak of war 145

Consequences of termination or suspension 146

10 Acquisition of territory 147

Modes of acquisition of territory 147

Cession 148

Occupation 148

Prescription 150

Operations of nature 151

Adjudication 151

Conquest 151

Acquiescence， recognition and estoppel 154

Intertemporal law 155

Legal and political arguments 157

Minor rights over territory 158

Servitudes 158

11Legal consequences of changes of sovereignty over territory （state succession） 161

Treaties 162

Treaties dealing with rights over territory 162

Other types of treaties 163

The principle of ‘moving treaty boundaries’ 163

Decolonization and new states 164

Recent practice 165

Secession 165

Baltic states 165

Dismemberment 166

Soviet Union 166

Yugoslavia 167

Czechoslovakia 167

Unification 167

Germany 167

Yemen 168

International claims 169

Nationality 169

Public property 169

Private propertv 170

Contractual rights 170

12 The law of the sea 173

Internal waters 175

Territorial sea 176

The right of innocent passage 176

Rights of the coastal state over the territorial sea 177

The width of the territorial sea 178

The line from which the territorial sea is measured 180

The contiguous zone 182

Exclusive fishery zones and exclusive economic zones 183

The high seas 184

Interference with ships on the high seas 186

Jurisdiction of municipal courts over crimes committed on the high seas 190

The continental shelf 191

The deep seabed 193

Maritime boundaries 195

13 Air space and outer space 198

Air space 198

Outer space 201

The ‘common heritage of mankind’ principle 207

14 Human rights 209

The concept of human rights 209

Human rights on the universal level 211

The United Nations Charter 211

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 212

United Nations bodies active in the field of human rights 213

The 1966 Covenants 215

Other human rights instruments on the universal level 216

Human rights on the regional level 217

The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 217

Other regional instruments 219

Human rights as a matter of international concern 220

15 Economy 222

The Bretton Woods system and international economic organizations 223

The International Monetary Fund （IMF） 225

The World Bank 227

The GATT 228

The new World Trade Organization 231

The trade agreements on goods 231

The Agreement on Services （GATS） 232

The Agreement on Intellectual Property Rights （TRIPS） 232

Institutional aspects 233

Developing countries and the legal quest for a New International Economic Order 233

Expropriation and standard of compensation 235

Disguised expropriation 238

Expropriation of contractual rights 238

The right to development 239

16 Environment 241

The scope and nature of international environmental law 242

Customary law and general principles 245

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 247

The Convention on Climate Change 248

The Biodiversity Convention 249

The Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 250

Conclusions 251

17 State responsibility 254

The work of the International Law Commission 254

State responsibility and the treatment of aliens 256

‘Imputability’ 257

The minimum international standard 260

Preliminary objections 262

Nationality of claims 263

Exhaustion of local remedies 267

Waiver 268

Unreasonable delay and improper behaviour by the injured alien 269

Consequences of an internationally wrongful act 269

Countermeasures and dispute settlement 271

18 Peaceful settlement of disputes between states 273

Diplomatic methods of dispute settlement 275

Negotiations 275

Good offices and mediation 275

Fact-finding and inquiry 277

Conciliation 278

Legal methods of dispute settlement 281

Adjudication 281

The International Court of Justice 281

Composition 282

Jurisdiction in contentious cases 282

Procedure 287

Ad hoc chambers 288

Enforcement of judgments 288

Advisory opinions 289

Evaluation of the Court 290

Arbitration 293

ICSID 295

The Iran-United States Claims Tribunal 296

Settlement of disputes under the Law of the Sea Convention 298

Conclusions 300

19 Internatlonal wars， civil wars and the right to self-determination：ids ad bellum 306

Lawful and unlawful wars： developments before 1945 306

The prohibition of the use of force in the United Nations Charter 309

Self-defence 311

Preventive self-defence 311

Self-defence and claims to territory 314

Self-defence against attacks on ships and aircraft 315

Armed protection of nationals abroad 315

Armed reprisals 316

Immediacy and proportionality 316

Collective self-defence 317

Civil wars 318

The legality of civil wars 318

Participation by other states： help for the insurgents 319

Participation by other states： help for the established authorities 322

The theory that help for the established authorities is legal 322

The theory that help for the established authorities is illegal 323

Collective self-defence against subversion 324

Conclusion 325

Self-determination and the use of force 326

Mandated territories， trust territories and non-self-governing territories 327

Mandated territories 327

Trust territories 328

South West Africa （Namibia） 328

Non-self-governing territories 329

Double standards？ 332

Consequences of violations of the right of self-determination 334

Creation of new states 334

Title to territory 334

Wars of national liberation 336

New developments 338

The effectiveness of the modern rules against the use of force 341

20 Means of waging war and criminal responsibility： ius in bello 342

Lawful and unlawful means of waging war 342

Nuclear weapons 346

The law of neutrality and economic uses of maritime warfare 350

Reprisals 351

Rules governing the conduct of civil wars 352

War crimes trials 353

The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia 355

Jurisdiction of the Tribunal 356

The work of the Tribunal 358

The Rwanda Tribunal 360

Towards a permanent international criminal court？ 360

Possible future developments 361

21 The Charter and the organs of the United Nations 364

The United Nations Charter and the problem of interpretation 364

Literal interpretation 365

Intention and travaux preparatoires 366

Practice 366

Effectiveness and implied powers 367

The purposes of the United Nations 368

Domestic jurisdiction 368

Membership 369

The representation of China 371

The case of Yugoslavia 372

The organs of the United Nations 373

The Security Council 373

The General Assembly 377

The Secretariat 380

The Economic and Social Council and the specialized agencies 382

22 The United Nations and peace and security 385

Pacific settlement of disputes under the United Nations Charter （Chapter Ⅵ） 385

Collective security and enforcement action （Chapter ⅦI） 387

Practice under Chapter ⅦI during the Cold War 390

The United Nations force in Korea 391

The Uniting for Peace Resolution 392

Rhodesia and South Africa 393

Practice under Chapter ⅦI after the end of the Cold War 395

The invasion of Kuwait by Iraq 396

The Kurdish crisis 399

Somalia 402

Rwanda 405

Haiti 407

Yugoslavia 409

UN peacekeeping 416

The ‘old’ peacekeeping during the Cold War 416

The first United Nations Emergency Force in the Middle East （UNEF） 417

The United Nations Force in the Congo （ONUC） 418

The Expenses case 420

The United Nations Force in Cyprus （UNFICYP） 420

New forces in the Middle East 422

New forms of peacekeeping after the Cold War 423

Conclusion 425

Table of cases 431

Table of treaties， declarations and other documents 435

Index 441

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