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PART ONE INTRODUCTORY REFLECTIONS 3

1. THE PLACE AND FUNCTION OF LEGAL THEORY 3

2. GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND THE BASIC PROBLEMS OF LAW 5

From Homer to Pericles 6

Plato's Approach to Law 7

Aristotle's Contribution to Legal Theory 10

3. LAW, JUSTICE, ETHICS, AND SOCIAL MORALITY 14

The Concept of Law 14

The Concept of a Legal System 16

The Relation of Justice to Law and Ethics 21

Ethics and Social Morality 25

Ethical Theories and Valuations 27

Ethical and Legal Theory 28

Legal Theories Based on Objective Ethical Criteria 30

Pragmatism in Ethics and Law 31

Ethical and Legal Theories Denying Objective Validity 32

Relativism in Ethics and Legal Philosophy 32

Noncognitivist Ethical Theories 36

Ethical Theories and the Solution of Legal Problems—An Illustration 39

Social Morality and the Legal Order 42

Law, Morality, and Social Change 44

Law and the Enforcement of Morals 45

4. SCIENCE AND LEGAL THEORY 48

Methods of Inquiry 49

Facts, Values and Judgments in the Social Sciences 53

Policy Decisions and the Art of Judgment 56

Science, Determinism, and Legal Responsibility 60

Psychology and Criminal Responsibility 60

Moral Guilt, Determinism and Legal Responsibility 63

Genetics and Responsibility 67

5. LEGAL THEORY AND SOCIAL EVOLUTION 70

Law and Social Change 70

Legal Idealism and the Sociological Approach to Law 74

6. THE PRINCIPAL ANTINOMIES IN LEGAL THEORY 82

Individual and Universe 82

Voluntarism and Objective Knowledge 83

Intellect and Intuition 84

Stability and Change 86

Positivism and Idealism 87

Collectivism and Individualism 88

Democracy and Autocracy 91

Nationalism and Internationalism 91

PART TWO A CRITICAL SURVEY OF LEGAL THEORIES 95

Section One Natural Law and the Search for Absolute Values 95

7. THE PROBLEM OF NATURAL LAW 95

8. ANCIENT THEORIES 98

Greek Theories of Natural Justice 98

Natural Law and Roman Jurisprudence 101

9. THE MIDDLE AGES 104

Foundation of Medieval, Political and Legal Thought 104

Natural Law and Divine Order 107

Decretum Gratianum 108

St. Thomas Aquinas (1226-74) 108

Duns Scotus (1265-1308) and William of Occam (1290-1349) 112

10. REASON AND THE LAW OF NATURE 114

11. NATURAL LAW AND SOCIAL CONTRACT 117

Grotius (1583-1645) 119

Hobbes (1588-1679) 120

Locke (1632-1704) 122

Rousseau (1712-88) 125

12. TWILIGHT OF NATURAL LAW IDEOLOGY 128

Montesquieu (1689-1755) 128

Hume (1711-76) and Modern Scepticism 129

13. NATURAL LAW THEORIES IN ANGLO-AMERICAN LEGAL DEVELOPMENT 132

Natural Law Ideas in English Law 133

Natural Law in American Jurisprudence 136

14. REVIVAL OF NATURAL LAW THEORIES 152

Section Two Philosophical Idealism and the Problem of Justice 157

15. GERMAN TRANSCENDENTAL IDEALISM 157

Kant (1724-1804) 157

Fichte (1762-1814) 161

Hegel (1770-1831) 164

Criticism 170

Neo-Hegelians 174

16. NEO-KANTIAN PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENTIFIC LEGAL IDEALISM 177

Stammler 179

The Concept of Law 179

The Idea of Law 181

Criticism 184

Del Vecchio 186

Binder 189

17. MODERN VALUE PHILOSOPHIES AND THE LAW 191

Relativism (Weber, Radbruch, Holmes) 191

Phenomenology, Existentialism and Contemporary Legal Philosophy 197

Scheler and Hartmann 197

Existentialism 199

Modern Latin-American Legal Philosophies 201

The "Natur der Sache" 203

Phenomenology and Law 205

Critique of Phenomenological and Existentialist Legal Theory 206

Section Three The Impact of Social Development on Legal Theory 209

18. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION AS A GUIDE TO LEGAL THOUGHT 209

Savigny's Historical School 209

Hegel, Maine and Ethnological Interpretations of Law 213

19. BIOLOGY, SOCIETY AND LEGAL EVOLUTION 224

The New Social Discipline 224

Biology and Human Progress 225

Darwin and Spencer 225

Comte, Durkheim and Duguit 228

Criticism 233

Gierke 236

Hauriou 239

20. MODERN SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF LAW 243

Meaning and Definitions of Sociological Jurisprudence 243

Sociological Theories of Legal Evolution 245

Ehrlich 247

Criticism 251

Section Four Positivism and Legal Theory 253

21. POSITIVISM IN MODERN PHILOSOPHY 253

22. ANALYTICAL LEGAL POSITIVISM 256

Different Aspects of Analytical Legal Positivism 256

Austin's Theory of Law 258

German Positivistic Theories of Law and State 260

Analytical Positivism in France and the "Code Civil" 261

Austin's Successors and Critics 263

23. POSITIVISM AND THE ANALYSIS OF LEGAL CONCEPTS 268

Analytical Jurisprudence and the "Meaning" of Legal Concepts 270

24. KELSEN'S PURE THEORY OF LAW 275

Criticism 283

Contemporary Modifications of Analytical Positivism (Hart) 287

Analytical Positivisms—Some Conclusions 289

25. PRAGMATIC POSITIVISM 292

The American Realist Movement 292

The Scandinavian Realists 304

Section Five Utilitarianism, the Jurisprudence of Interests and the New Legal Idealism 312

26. LAW AND THE PURSUIT OF INTERESTS 312

Bentham's Utilitarianism 312

John Stuart Mill 320

Rudolph von Ihering and the Foundation of Sociological Jurisprudence 321

Criticism 325

27. THE NEW LEGAL IDEALISM 326

Legal Theory and Social Problems 326

Francois Geny 328

German "Interessenjurisprudenz" 332

Social Engineering: Roscoe Pound and his Successors 336

Free Law Theories (Freirechtslehre) 342

Section Six A Critique of the Search for Absolute Legal Values 345

28. IDEALS OF JUSTICE 345

Rationalistic, Metaphysical and Intuitive Ideals of Justice 345

Relativism and Justice 346

Pound's Critique of "Give it up" Philosophies 347

The Judicial Scepticism of Holmes 348

Radbruch and the German Revival of "Higher Law" Philosophy 350

Critique of Natural Law Approach to the Conflict of Values 356

Value Conflicts and Universally Valid Insights 359

Universality and Cleavage in Contemporary Theories of Justice 363

PART THREE LEGAL THEORY AND CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS 367

Section One Legal Theory of Modern Political Movements 367

29. SOCIALIST AND COMMUNIST THEORIES OF LAW 367

Marxist Theory 367

Renner's Analysis of Property in Capitalist Society 368

Soviet Legal Theory and Practice 373

Legal Theory of Social Democracy 383

30. NEO-SCHOLASTIC DOCTRINE AND MODERN CATHOLIC LEGAL PHILOSOPHY 387

Restatement of Thomistic Principles by the Catholic Church 387

Neo-Scholastic Natural Law Theories 393

31. LEGAL VALUES OF MODERN DEMOCRACY 398

Rights of the Individual 398

Freedom of Contract 400

Freedom of Labour and Association 401

Freedom of Property 405

Freedom of Enterprise 407

Freedom of the Person 411

Equality 416

Government of the People 419

The Role of Law and the Function of the Lawyer in Developing Countries 429

Section Two Legal Theory, Public Policy and Legal Evolution 436

32. LEGAL IDEALS AND JUDICIAL LAW-MAKING 436

Judicial Law-Making in Contemporary Jurisprudence 439

Judicial Role in Three Types of Legal Systems 440

Judicial Law-Making in Federal Constitutions 442

Judicial Role in the British System 449

Interpretations of Statutes and Precedent 451

Principles of Statutory Interpretation 452

Rules and Decision 461

Precedent and Legal Development 463

Recent Modifications of the Doctrine of Precedent 474

Precedent in the Criminal Law 476

Public Policy 479

General Equity 490

Legal Development in the Contemporary Common Law 492

Limits of Judicial Law-Making and Prospective Overruling 500

Legislative Inaction and Judicial Reform 500

Criteria for Limits of Judicial Reform 503

Prospective Overruling and Judicial Law-Making 507

Alternative Roads to Legal Reform 511

Conclusions 513

33. ENGLISH, AMERICAN AND CONTINENTAL APPROACHES TO LAW 515

General Differences 516

Legal Concepts 519

Property Law 519

Corporate Personality 521

Criminal Law 523

Family Law 523

Contract and Commercial Law 525

Law of Torts 527

Evidence and Procedure 531

The Role of the Judge 532

Code Law and Case Law 533

Abstract Principles and Concrete Decision 539

Dualism of Law and Equity 543

Private Law and Administrative Law 545

The Narrowing of the Gap 549

34. CORPORATE PERSONALITY IN THEORY AND PRACTICE 556

The Principal Theories of Corporate Personality 556

Lifting the Veil of Corporate Personality 559

Criminal Liability of Corporations 565

The Unincorporated Association and Corporate Personality 567

Corporate Personality—Theory and Reality 571

35. STATE SOVEREIGHTY AND INTERNATIONAL ORDER 573

Principal Theories of State Sovereignty 573

National Sovereignty and International Law 574

Selected Bibliography 581

Index of Authors 593

General Index 599

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